R-factors are pieces of DNA, usually plasmids, that contain antibiotic resistance genes. Resistance genes are ones that give rise to proteins that modify the antibiotic or pump it out. They are different from mutations that give bacteria resistance to antibiotics by preventing the antibiotic from getting in or changing the shape of the target protein.

A nanobe (/ ˈ n æ n oʊ b, ˈ n eɪ n oʊ b /) is a tiny filamental structure first found in some rocks and sediments.Some scientists hypothesize that nanobes are the smallest form of life, 1/10 the size of the smallest known bacteria.. No conclusive evidence exists that these structures are, or are not, living organisms, so their classification is controversial.

جاندار، اَندامگان، اُرگانیسم (به فرانسوی: Organisme) یا موجود زنده به معنای یک سامانهٔ زنده و پیچیده از اعضا است که با تأثیرشان بر یکدیگر، امکان سازگاری با محیط و تضمین بقا و پایداری کل آن موجود زنده (جاندار) را فراهم می‌کنند.