Scientific realism is the view that the universe described by science is real regardless of how it may be interpreted.. Within philosophy of science, this view is often an answer to the question "how is the success of science to be explained?"The discussion on the success of science in this context centers primarily on the status of unobservable entities apparently talked about by …

Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science.The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose of science.This discipline overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship …

Literary realism is a literary genre, part of the broader realism in arts, that attempts to represent subject-matter truthfully, avoiding speculative fiction and supernatural elements.It originated with the realist art movement that began with mid-nineteenth-century French literature and Russian literature (Alexander Pushkin). Literary realism attempts to represent familiar things as they are.

In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological theory that holds that knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views within epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism.Empiricism emphasizes the central role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions.

Critical realism is a philosophical approach to understanding science, and in particular social science, initially developed by Roy Bhaskar (1944–2014). It specifically opposes forms of empiricism and positivism by viewing science as concerned with identifying causal mechanisms.In the last decades of the twentieth century it also stood against various forms of postmodernism …

Philosophical realism is usually not treated as a position of its own but as a stance towards other subject matters. Realism about a certain kind of thing (like numbers or morality) is the thesis that this kind of thing has mind-independent existence, i.e. that it is not just a mere appearance in the eye of the beholder. This includes a number of positions within epistemology and …

Pseudoscience consists of statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be both scientific and factual but are incompatible with the scientific method. Pseudoscience is often characterized by contradictory, exaggerated or unfalsifiable claims; reliance on confirmation bias rather than rigorous attempts at refutation; lack of openness to evaluation by other experts; absence of …

Overview. A scientific law always applies to a physical system under repeated conditions, and it implies that there is a causal relationship involving the elements of the system. Factual and well-confirmed statements like "Mercury is liquid at standard temperature and pressure" are considered too specific to qualify as scientific laws. A central problem in the philosophy of …

Defensive realism. The security dilemma is the core assumption of defensive realism. According to Kenneth Waltz, because the world does not have a common government and is "anarchic", survival is the main motivation of states. States are distrustful of other states' intentions and as a consequence always try to maximize their own security.

History Origins. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, to elect a Commission to study the feasibility of having nations freely share cultural, educational and scientific achievements. This new body, the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (ICIC), was created in 1922 and …